What is meant by the term Global World Order? (476CE-1991)

Definition

The term global world order represents the framework and arrangement of the international system, outlining the rules, norms, and institutions that regulate interactions among states and shape the course of global politics. It defines how power is distributed, how countries cooperate or compete, and the mechanisms that ensure stability or drive change in the world. The concept of global order has undergone significant transformations over time, with various actors contributing to its formation and regulation. Historically, the West has been regarded as the primary architect and steward of the global order.

The global order represents the framework and arrangement of the international system, outlining the rules, norms, and institutions that regulate interactions among states and shape the course of global politics. It defines how power is distributed, how countries cooperate or compete, and the mechanisms that ensure stability or drive change in the world. The concept of global order has undergone significant transformations over time, with various actors contributing to its formation and regulation. Historically, the West has been regarded as the primary architect and steward of the global order.

In today’s world, the global order is often described as multipolar, characterized by the presence of multiple centers of power and influence. This multipolarity contrasts with previous eras, such as the bipolar order of the Cold War, where power was divided between the United States and the Soviet Union, and the unipolar moment following the Cold War, where the U.S. was the dominant global power.

After the fall of Soviet union in 1991 Cold War ended the conflict between the USA and the Soviet Union, causing the emergence of the USA as the single most powerful nation on the earth. America was able to influence countries all around the world in all sectors, including economically, socially, culturally, and politically.

In this article we will find the answer of “What is meant by the term global world order? “

Historical Evaluation

Medieval Europe (500-1500 AD)

In Medieval Europe there were no concept of Nation state. Even they were not believing on sovereignty of empires. Neither they were believing in non interference nor in peaceful coexistence. In this period Roman empire disintegrated power and authority became decentralized in Europe.By 1000 A.D. three civilizations had emerged from the rubble of Rome:

1:- Arabic civilization: under the religious and political domination of the Islamic caliphate, advanced mathematical and technical accomplishments made it a potent force.

2:- Byzantine Empire: located near the core of the old Roman Empire in Constantinople and united by Christianity.

3:- The rest of Europe, where languages and cultures proliferated, and the networks of communication developed by the Romans were beginning to disintegrate.

Feudalism was the dominant political and social system in Medieval Europe. Power was decentralized, with lords, dukes, and counts holding significant control over their territories. These nobles pledged allegiance to a king but often acted independently.

The Catholic Church was the only institution that connected nearly all of Europe during the Middle Ages. In a time when most political institutions were localized, the Church maintained a universal presence, with the Pope in Rome acting as the spiritual leader of all Christians in Europe. The Church was not only a religious authority but also wielded significant political power. The Pope and high-ranking clergy (bishops, archbishops, cardinals) often acted as mediators in political disputes and had the ability to influence the decisions of kings and emperors.

Thirty Years War

The Thirty Years’ War, from 1618 to 1648, was one of the most destructive conflicts in European history fought primarily in Central Europe. The war’s roots lay in the religious conflict between Catholics and Protestants that began with the Reformation in the 16th century. The division between Catholic and Protestant states in the Holy Roman Empire created deep tensions. The immediate cause of the war was the Defenestration of Prague. Protestant nobles in Bohemia (modern-day Czech Republic) rebelled against the Catholic Holy Roman Emperor Ferdinand II, who sought to impose Catholicism on his largely Protestant subjects.

The Holy Roman Empire had many semi-independent states with their own rulers. The Emperor tried to centralize power, while local princes wanted more independence, leading to a struggle over the balance of power in the empire. The war attracted outside involvement from major European powers like France, Spain, Sweden, and Denmark. France supported Protestant forces to weaken the Habsburgs (who controlled the Holy Roman Empire and Spain) and strengthen their own position in Europe. Sweden and Denmark, both Protestant, saw the conflict as an opportunity to expand their influence in northern Europe.

What began as a religious war in the Holy Roman Empire quickly escalated into a broader European conflict with far-reaching consequences. About 4.5 to 8 million soldiers and civilians died from the effects of battle, famine, or disease, while parts of Germany reported population declines of over 50%. The three decades of intense warfare caused massive loss of life, economic ruin, and social disruption. No side was able to achieve a decisive military victory. The realization that further fighting would not lead to a clear winner pushed the warring factions toward negotiation

Peace of Westphalia(1648)

Peace of Westphalia start with a series of talks started as early as 1643, when major European powers, including Sweden, France, Spain, and the Holy Roman Empire, along with various German princes, began diplomatic efforts to end the conflict. These negotiations took place in the neutral towns of Münster and Osnabrück in Westphalia, a region in modern-day Germany. Separate talks were held for the Protestant and Catholic factions.

The treaties signed in October 1648, known collectively as the Peace of Westphalia, officially ended the Thirty Years’ War. Treaty of Münster (between Spain and the Dutch Republic), ending the Eighty Years’ War and recognizing Dutch independence. Treaty of Osnabrück and Treaty of Münster (between the Holy Roman Empire, France, Sweden, and other parties) ending the Thirty Years’ War.

The treaties established religious peace within the Holy Roman Empire by extending the provisions of the Peace of Augsburg (1555) to include Calvinism, alongside Catholicism and Lutheranism. This allowed rulers to choose their state’s religion, while ensuring that religious minorities had certain protection

Establishment of State Sovereignty

One of the most significant outcomes of the Peace of Westphalia was the recognition of state sovereignty. This meant that each state had the right to govern itself without outside interference, especially in matters of religion. This principle marked the beginning of the modern system of nation-states, where borders and sovereignty were respected, and conflicts were increasingly resolved through diplomacy rather than religious wars.

Treaty of Westphalia, had a profound impact on the practice of international relations in three ways:

• It upheld sovereignty, meaning rulers had exclusive control over their territories and could set their own domestic policies.
• Leaders built permanent national militaries, increasing state power as they collected taxes to fund them and took full control of the troops.
• A core group of states—Austria, Russia, England, France, and the United Provinces (Netherlands and Belgium)—dominated the world until the early 19th century.

After the Treaty of Westphalia (1648), the concept of state sovereignty became central to the world order. This led to the rise of the nation-state as the primary political entity, replacing the previous feudal and religious structures.

Colonial Empires and Imperialism

Colonialism refers to the practice where European nations, starting in the 16th century, took control of other lands, mainly in Africa, Asia, and the Americas, to expand their empires.

The age of discovery (15th-17th century) was a transformative period in world history when previously isolated parts of the world became connected to form the world-system and laid the groundwork for globalization. The vast overseas explorations, notably the establishment of maritime routes to the Indies and the European colonization of the Americas by Spain and Portugal, followed by the English, French, and Dutch, greatly accelerated the development of international trade. The interconnected global economy of the 21st century has its origins in the expansion of trade networks during this era.

The era of modern colonialism commenced around 1500, marked by European explorations that uncovered a sea route around Africa’s southern tip in 1488 and the discovery of America in 1492. The 17th century saw the birth of the Dutch Empire and French colonial empire, as well as the English overseas possessions, which later became the British Empire. It also saw the establishment of Danish overseas colonies and Swedish overseas colonies.

European colonialism began with trade as European nations sought new markets, resources, and trade routes to expand their wealth and influence. Initial European expansion was focused on setting up trading posts along African, Indian, and Southeast Asian coasts. The Portuguese established a vast network of trade in gold, spices, and slaves through these posts, while Spain concentrated on extracting wealth from its colonies in the Americas. Nations like England, the Netherlands, and France formed powerful trading companies such as the British East India Company and the Dutch East India Company (VOC). These companies not only facilitated trade but also wielded significant political and military power, establishing monopolies and controlling large territories.

By the 18th and 19th centuries, European nations had transitioned from trade-focused relationships to territorial colonization, exploiting colonies for raw materials, markets, and labor. The British Empire, French Empire, Spanish Empire, and others dominated vast regions of the world.

During the colonial period the global economy was structured to serve the interests of the imperial powers through a mercantilist system, where colonies were restricted to trading only with their mother country, keeping wealth and resources flowing back to Europe.

British Empire was the most powerful colonial empire in history, particularly at its peak in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. The fall of colonialism started over the 19th and 20th centuries. The non European powers like the U.S. and Japan began to challenge the European-centric world order. In the mid-20th century as European empires weakened and nationalist movements gained strength. Maintaining colonies became increasingly expensive, and many European powers could no longer afford the military and administrative costs of imperialism.

After World War 1

After World War I, the world order shifted significantly as empires collapsed, new nations emerged, and international institutions were established in an attempt to prevent future conflicts.

World War I brought about the collapse of four empires: the Austro-Hungarian, German, Ottoman, and Russian. Astro-Hungarian empire collapsed into Czechoslovakia, Astoria, Hungary, Romania and Serbia. Ottoman Empire collapsed into modern nation states like Turkey, Syria, Iraq and Labanon. In Russia Tsar Nicholas II was overthrown in the February Revolution, ending centuries of Romanov rule. In October 1917, the Bolsheviks, led by Vladimir Lenin, seized power in the October Revolution. The Bolsheviks withdrew Russia from World War I by signing the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk with Germany in March 1918, ceding significant territories (Ukraine, Belarus, the Baltic States, and parts of Poland) in exchange for peace.

After a long and brutal civil war between the “Reds” (Bolsheviks/Communists) and the “Whites” (a loose coalition of monarchists, liberals, and anti-Bolsheviks) the Bolsheviks formally established the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR), in December 1922. This marked the official end of the Russian Empire and the beginning of a new era of communist rule.

After World War 1 colonial empires like British and French Empires remained intact, but their dominance began to wane, especially as nationalist movements gained momentum in their colonies. In 1918, U.S. President Woodrow Wilson delivered a speech on the importance of self-determination—the idea that people should be governed only with their consent. The British and French empires continued to exploit their colonies for raw materials and resources. However, the economic impact of the Great Depression in the 1930s strained colonial economies, leading to increased discontent and demands for reform.

League of Nations was established in 1920 as an international organization aimed at promoting peace and cooperation among countries. The League’s idealistic goals clashed with the realities of imperialism, leading to tensions as colonized nations sought independence. Ultimately, while the League aimed to foster global cooperation, the persistence of colonialism and the geopolitical dynamics of the time complicated its mission.

After World War I, the decline of European powers became apparent, and the world order began shifting toward the United States as an emerging global power. The U.S. economy grew rapidly after the war, driven by industrial production and technological innovation. The country experienced a period of prosperity known as the “Roaring Twenties.” America became the world’s largest creditor nation, lending money to European countries for reconstruction and economic recovery. U.S. businesses expanded globally, and American culture (movies, jazz, consumer goods) began influencing other parts of the world. The U.S. emerged as a cultural powerhouse during the 1920s, with Hollywood becoming the center of the global film industry. American music, especially jazz, gained international popularity, influencing global culture.

Despite President Woodrow Wilson’s role in creating the League of Nations, the U.S. Senate rejected the Treaty of Versailles and refused to join the League, signaling a return to isolationism.

After World War 2

After World War II, colonialism entered a period of rapid decline, with the world witnessing the end of centuries-long European empires and the emergence of newly independent states, particularly in Asia and Africa. Several key factors contributed to the dismantling of colonial empires and the rise of decolonization:

• Economic Forces: World War II left much of Europe financially ruined. Because of this, maintaining thousands of soldiers and officials in distant colonies became too expensive for European countries. Britain, France, the Netherlands, and other imperial nations could no longer maintain control over their vast overseas territories. The devastation of war drained resources, making it difficult for these countries to sustain their colonial rule.
• Independence Movements: After World War II, long-established independence movements, rooted in the idea of self-governance, gained strength and put growing pressure on colonial powers to relinquish control. Local leaders and movements advocating for independence became more organized and vocal. The war also heightened awareness among colonial populations of their right to self-determination, especially since many had fought alongside European forces in the war.
• International pressure: The creation of the United Nations (UN) in 1945 provided a platform for anti-colonial sentiments. In 1960, a group of African and Asian nations came together to push for a resolution demanding the “full independence and freedom” of all colonial territories.The resolution passed without opposition, signaling a clear denunciation of colonialism on the global stage.

The colonies of British and French empires gained independence one by one. In 1947 India and Pakistan, 1949 Indonesia, 1954 Vietname.

Decolonization reshaped the global political landscape, leading to the emergence of dozens of new sovereign states, transforming international relations, and altering the balance of power in the post-war world order.

Emergence of new World Order

The world order after World War II marked a significant shift in global power structures and international relations. Colonial empires like Britain and France were no longer powerful. Global order were shifted from these countries to the new super powers Of Soviet Union and United States.

Soviet Union and United States became the winners of World war 2. United States successfully conducted nuclear tests and also use it against Japan. It started the new era of nuclear technology. Letter in August 1949 Soviet Union test it’s first nuclear bomb and became the second nuclear power.

Establishment of International Institutions

After World War II, several key international institutions were established like the United Nations, International Monetary Fund and World Bank. The aim of these institutions were to promote peace, security, and cooperation among nations.

The United Nations (UN) was established in response to the failure of its predecessor, the League of Nations, which was unable to prevent the outbreak of World War II. In August 1941, during World War II, U.S. President Franklin D. Roosevelt and British Prime Minister Winston Churchill met and signed the Atlantic Charter. This document outlined their vision for a post-war world, emphasizing principles like disarmament, self-determination, economic cooperation, and collective security. The Atlantic Charter, though not directly mentioning the UN, laid the groundwork for the post-war world order.

On January 1, 1942, representatives of 26 nations fighting against the Axis powers signed the Declaration by United Nations in Washington, D.C. This was the first formal use of the term “United Nations,” coined by Roosevelt, and it represented a collective commitment to work together to defeat the Axis and to adhere to the principles of the Atlantic Charter.During the Tehran Conference in November 1943, the leaders of the Big Three (Roosevelt, Churchill, and Soviet Premier Joseph Stalin) discussed the need for a new international organization to maintain post-war peace and security.

In February 1945, Roosevelt, Churchill, and Stalin met again at the Yalta Conference in the Crimea. They finalized the voting system for the Security Council and agreed to establish the United Nations to promote peace and prevent future wars.

The official founding of the United Nations took place at the United Nations Conference on International Organization, held in San Francisco from April to June 1945. Representatives from 50 countries attended. They reviewed and finalized the UN Charter, a treaty that outlined the organization’s structure, functions, and principles. The UN Charter was signed on June 26, 1945, by the representatives of the 50 countries (Poland, which could not attend the conference, signed later, bringing the total to 51 founding members). The Charter came into force on October 24, 1945, after being ratified by the five permanent members of the Security Council (the U.S., UK, Soviet Union, China, and France) and a majority of the other signatories.

Other Key institutions like IMF (International Monetary Fund) and World Bank were also created to ensure global monetary cooperation and to provide financial and technical assistance for development projects aimed at reducing poverty and fostering economic development in low- and middle-income countries.

Cold War (1947-1991)

As World War II transformed both the United States and the USSR, turning the nations into formidable world powers, competition between the two increased. Following the defeat of the Axis powers, an ideological and political rivalry between the United States and the USSR gave way to the start of the Cold War.

In 1945 Leaders from the U.S., the Soviet Union, and the UK met to discuss the post-war world order. Disagreements emerged over the fate of Eastern Europe, particularly Poland. The Soviet Union sought to create a buffer zone of communist states to protect itself from future invasions, while the West wanted democratic governments in these areas. Western leaders saw this as a clear instance of Soviet expansionism, clashing with their vision of a democratic Europe.

In march 1946 British PM Winston Churchill delivered a speech at Westminster College in Fulton, Missouri. Churchill described how Europe was divided between Western democracies, which were mostly aligned with the United States, and Eastern Europe, which had come under Soviet influence. He stated:

“From Stettin in the Baltic to Trieste in the Adriatic, an iron curtain has descended across the Continent.”

Churchill warned of the Soviet Union’s increasing control over Eastern Europe and its imposition of communist governments in countries like Poland, Hungary, Czechoslovakia, and Romania. Churchill advocated for a stronger Anglo-American alliance, suggesting that only by maintaining close ties between the U.S. and the UK could the Western world resist Soviet influence. He stressed the importance of unity and collective security to prevent the spread of communism.

The Iron Curtain Speech is considered one of the opening moments of the Cold War, as it publicly acknowledged the growing divide between the Soviet-controlled East and the democratic West. The Truman Doctrine, announced by U.S. President Harry S. Truman on March 12, 1947, was a key element of U.S. foreign policy during the early Cold War. The doctrine arose from political instability in Greece, where a civil war raged, and in Turkey, which faced Soviet pressure over control of the Dardanelles. The U.S. stepped in to provide military and economic aid to both nations, fearing that their fall to communism would destabilize the region and threaten U.S. interests.

Truman stated:- “I believe that it must be the policy of the United States to support free peoples who are resisting attempted subjugation by armed minorities or by outside pressures.”

The Truman Doctrine is often seen as the starting point of the Cold War because it committed the United States to a global struggle against communism, not just in Europe but around the world.

The speech outlined a clear ideological framework that would define U.S.-Soviet relations for the next four decades, pitting democracy against communism. It set a precedent for U.S. involvement in foreign conflicts and laid the groundwork for later policies like the Marshall Plan (1948) and the creation of NATO (1949).

Creation of NATO and Warsaw Pact

After WWII, Europe was devastated, and there was a growing threat from the Soviet Union, which had taken control of much of Eastern Europe establishing pro-Soviet regimes in countries like Poland, Czechoslovakia, Hungary, Romania, and East Germany. In response, the U.S. and its Western allies sought ways to prevent further expansion of Communist influence on the European continent. In 1947, U.S. leaders introduced the Marshall Plan, a diplomatic initiative that provided aid to friendly nations to help them rebuild their war-damaged infrastructures and economies.

On April 4, 1949, after extensive discussions among Western nations, the foreign ministers of 12 countries from North America and Western Europe convened in Washington, D.C., to officially sign the North Atlantic Treaty. This historic agreement marked the formation of a collective security alliance designed to counter the growing influence of the Soviet Union and to ensure mutual defense against aggression. The treaty was fundamentally a security agreement, with Article 5 declaring that an armed attack on any member would be viewed as an attack on all. When U.S. Secretary of State Dean Acheson (1893-1971) signed the document, it signified a major shift in American foreign policy, committing the United States to a formal, long-term alliance with European nations for the first time in its history. For the first time since the 1700s, the U.S. formally linked its security to Europe, the continent that had sparked both world wars.

The Soviet Union and seven of its European satellites sign a treaty establishing the Warsaw Pact, a mutual defense organization that put the Soviets in command of the armed forces of the member states. the Warsaw Pact was established as a balance of power or counterweight to the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO). The Warsaw Pact also allowed the Soviet Union to maintain military presence and influence in its satellite states, and it played a significant role in Cold War tensions.

Space Race

The Cold War wasn’t only a military or ideological struggle; it also included a competition for economic and technological supremacy. The U.S. promoted capitalist economic models, while the Soviet Union fostered socialist economic systems in its sphere.

The space race between the United States (US) and the Soviet Union (USSR) was a remarkable time in history with many far-reaching achievements in science, space exploration, and technology. This timeline shows the twenty-year competition between the two nations.

Space race timeline:

• 2 August 1955: The USSR responds to the US announcement that they intend to launch the first artificial satellite into space with a satellite of their own.
• 4 October 1957: The USSR successfully launches Sputnik 1, the first Earth-orbiting satellite in history.

• 3 November 1957: The USSR successfully launches Sputnik 2, carrying a dog named Laika into space. They become the first nation to successfully send a living organism into orbit.
• 31 January 1958: The US enter the space race by launching Explorer 1, the first US satellite to reach orbit. It carried experimental equipment that led to the discovery of the Van Allen radiation belt.
• 1 October 1958: The National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) is created in the US, replacing the National Advisory Committee on Aeronautics (NACA).
• 18 December 1958: The US launch SCORE, the world’s first communications satellite. It captured world attention by broadcasting a pre-recorded Christmas message from US President Dwight D. Eisenhower, becoming the first broadcast of a human voice from space.
• 2 January 1959: The USSR launches Luna 1, known as the first “cosmic rocket” as it accidentally escaped the orbit of the Moon due to the object having too much speed. Luna 1 becomes the first human-made object to leave the orbit of the Earth and orbit the sun instead.
• 19 August 1960: Aboard the Soviet Union’s Sputnik 5, the first animals (two dogs, Belka and Strelka) and a range of plants are returned alive from space.
• 21 December 1968: US spacecraft Apollo 8 becomes the first human-crewed spacecraft to reach the Moon, orbit it, and successfully return to Earth.
• 20 July 1969: Neil Armstrong and later Edwin “Buzz” Aldrin become the first men to walk on the Moon while their crewmate Michael Collins continues to orbit the Moon aboard the Apollo 11. This secured a victory for America in the space race with a televised landing witnessed around the world by 723 million people.

• 15 July 1975: With tensions between the US and USSR softening, the first cooperative Apollo-Soyuz mission is launched. With two separate flights, the Apollo and Soyuz spacecraft dock in space and the two commanders Tom Stafford and Alexei Leonov exchange the first international handshake. This act can be seen to symbolically end the space race, paving the way for future joint missions, such as the International Space Station and the Shuttle–Mir programme.

Vietnam war

March-May 1954 French troops are humiliated in defeat by Viet Minh forces at Dien Bien Phu. The defeat solidifies the end of French colonial rule in Indochina. In a speech, April 1954 p, U.S. President Dwight D. Eisenhower says the fall of French Indochina to communists could create a “domino” effect in Southeast Asia. This so-called domino theory guides U.S. thinking on Vietnam for the next decade.

In July 1954 the Geneva Accords establish North and South Vietnam with the 17th parallel as the dividing line. The agreement also stipulates that elections are to be held within two years to unify Vietnam under a single democratic government. These elections never happen.

Catholic nationalist Ngo Dinh Diem emerges as the leader of South Vietnam, with U.S. backing, while Ho Chi Minh leads the communist state to the north. The National Liberation Front (NLF) is formed with North Vietnamese backing as the political wing of the antigovernment insurgency in South Vietnam. The United States views the NLF as an arm of North Vietnam and starts calling the military wing of the NLF the Viet Cong—short for Vietnam Cong-san, or Vietnamese communists.

In may 1966 President John F. Kennedy sends helicopters and 400 Green Berets to South Vietnam and authorizes secret operations against the Viet Cong. In August 1964 USS Maddox on an espionage mission is attacked by North Vietnamese patrol torpedo boats in the Gulf of Tonkin.The incidents lead President Johnson to call for air strikes on North Vietnamese patrol boat bases. Two U.S. aircraft are shot down and one U.S. pilot, Everett Alvarez Jr., becomes the first U.S. airman to be taken prisoner by North Vietnam.

The Gulf of Tonkin incidents lead Congress to pass the Gulf of Tonkin Resolution, granting the president the authority to “take all necessary measures, including the use of military force,” against any hostile actions in the conflict. In July 1965 President Johnson calls for 50,000 more ground troops to be sent to Vietnam, increasing the draft to 35,000 each month.At the end of 1967 Us military in Vietnam reached to about 5 hundred thousand.

The North Vietnamese Viet Kong start gorilla attacks on US forces. In January 1968 they launched a coordinated attacks at a dozen of cities of South Vietnam. In this attack they severally damaged US military base in Saigon. The US military seemed helpless in the face of these guerrillas.

After all these failures and the killing of ordinary civilians by US army raises the anti-war voices from the public and the opposition in the United States began to grow. In 1969 after Richard Nixon has taken over the presidency, it’s time for the United States to get rid of these war. The two sides therefore began talks in Paris to resolve the issue. North Insisted upon complete and unconditional withdrawal of Us forces. In January 1973, President Nixon signs the Paris Peace Accords, ending direct U.S. involvement in the Vietnam War. The North Vietnamese accept a cease fire. But as U.S. troops depart Vietnam, North Vietnamese military officials continue plotting to overtake South Vietnam.

In April 1975 In the Fall of Saigon, the capital of South Vietnam is seized by communist forces and the government of South Vietnam surrenders. North and South Vietnam are formally unified as the Socialist Republic of Vietnam under hardline communist rule.

The US failed to achieve it’s primary objective of preventing the spread of communism in Vietnam and Southeast Asia. Despite its massive military and economic investment, the U.S. ultimately withdrew without achieving a clear victory.

The Soviet invasion of Afghanistan

In the late 1970s, the political landscape of Afghanistan underwent significant changes that heightened U.S. concerns about Soviet influence in the region. Mohammad Daoud Khan, who had served as Afghanistan’s prime minister and then became president after a 1973 coup that ousted the monarchy, initially sought to reduce Afghanistan’s dependence on the Soviet Union by improving ties with the United States and other nations. His regime, however, faced increasing pressure from leftist and communist factions, particularly the People’s Democratic Party of Afghanistan (PDPA), which had strong connections to the Soviet Union.

In 1978, Daoud’s attempts to counter the growing influence of the PDPA and reduce Soviet sway culminated in his overthrow and assassination during the Saur Revolution, a coup orchestrated by the PDPA with Soviet backing. The PDPA quickly established a communist government, and its radical reforms, including land redistribution and secular policies, alienated many in Afghan society, especially religious and tribal leaders.

As the Soviets had anticipated, the reforms quickly sparked backlash from Islamic fundamentalists, who viewed the changes as a direct challenge to their way of life. In response, they called for a jihad, or holy war, aiming to overthrow Taraki and Amin and establish a government based on religious principles. The United States, recognizing an opportunity to increase its access to Afghan soil and thwart the Soviets, began sending aid to the mujahideen in 1979.

The PDPA, which gained power after the coup, was itself divided into two factions: the Khalq faction, led by Nur Mohammad Taraki and Hafizullah Amin, and the Parcham faction, led by Babrak Karmal. Ultimately, Taraki and Amin took control of the government, as president and prime minister respectively, and aimed to implement radical and rapid modernization reforms. The Soviet Union supported Taraki and Amin’s government, but cautioned the Afghan leaders to move slowly with reforms in their traditional nation. In September 1979, Hafizullah Amin, a factional leader within the PDPA, overthrew and killed President Taraki, worsening the instability. Amin’s erratic behavior and purges of rivals within the party raised concerns in Moscow that he could not control the situation.

On December 24, 1979, Soviet forces crossed the border into Afghanistan. On December 27, Soviet special forces (Spetsnaz) launched “Operation Storm-333,” storming the presidential palace in Kabul and assassinating Amin. The Soviets replaced him with Babrak Karmal, a more reliable communist leader and member of the PDPA. The invasion prompted the U.S. to take a more assertive role in containing Soviet influence. In response, the U.S. began to covertly support the Mujahideen, the Afghan resistance fighters opposing the Soviet-backed government, through the CIA’s Operation Cyclone. This support, carried out with the help of Pakistan’s Inter-Services Intelligence (ISI), provided arms, training, and financial backing to the Mujahideen. Aid to the mujahideen was further increased under the Reagan administration, and at its height, American aid to the rebels reached $400 million per year.

The conflict between Soviet forces and the mujahideen rebels lasted for a decade, with the technologically superior Red Army unable to secure victory over the insurgents. This prolonged struggle led many Americans to draw parallels with the Vietnam War. Partially due to the heavy losses and lack of progress, the war became progressively unpopular in the Soviet Union. When Mikhail Gorbachev became the Soviet leader in 1985, he put forth a plan to reform Soviet society, a plan with which the war in Afghanistan was incongruous.

In 1988, after several years of negotiations, the Geneva Accords were signed between Afghanistan, Pakistan, the Soviet Union, and the United States, under the mediation of the United Nations. The agreement outlined the terms for the withdrawal of Soviet troops, non-intervention by external powers, and the repatriation of Afghan refugees. The Soviet withdrawal, which had been gradually phased, was completed on February 15, 1989. The last Soviet troops, led by General Boris Gromov, crossed the Amu Darya River back into Soviet territory.

Even after the Soviet withdrawal, Afghanistan remained in turmoil. The communist government of Najibullah managed to survive for three more years, largely due to Soviet financial and military aid. However, with the collapse of the Soviet Union in 1991, that support dried up, and in 1992, the government fell to the Mujahideen forces, leading to a brutal civil war among the various Mujahideen factions.

Fall of Soviet Union

In elections of 1985 in Soviet Union Mikhail Gorbachev came into power. He inherited a stagnant economy. Economic growth had slowed, industrial production was inefficient, and there were widespread shortages of consumer goods. The economy was heavily dependent on oil exports, which suffered due to falling global oil prices. He introduced two major reforms aimed at transforming the political landscape and revitalizing the USSR’s economy. These initiatives were known as glasnost, which promoted openness and transparency in government, and perestroika, which focused on restructuring the economy to increase efficiency and productivity.

Perestroika (restructuring) aimed to reform the economy, but the gradual shift towards a market economy led to instability.Glasnost (openness) allowed more freedom of speech and press, which led to increased public criticism of the government and exposed deep-seated issues within the Soviet Union. It exposed corruption, inefficiency, and historical abuses (like Stalin’s purges), fueling public disillusionment with the system. The policy also encouraged nationalist movements in various Soviet republics, contributing to rising separatist sentiments.

As people grew more vocal in their criticisms and nationalist movements gained strength, the central authority of the Communist Party weakened.Political reforms, like multi-candidate elections, reduced the party’s monopoly on power, further eroding the government’s control over the country.

On December 25, Gorbachev resigned as leader of the USSR. The Soviet Union ceased to exist on December 31, 1991.

Conclusion

In this article I think we try to find the answer of our question “What is meant by the term global world order?” In the next articles we work on the current global world order situation. What is Globalization. Such article will come soon. Thanks for time for reading this article.