A history of the rocky relationship between the two nuclear armed neighbors of South Asia.
The two states of South Asia share deep-rooted linguistic, cultural, geographic, and economic ties, stemming from centuries of shared history, particularly during the period of British colonial rule. The relationship between Pakistan and India has been marked by tension and conflict since the partition of British India in 1947. Over the decades, the two nations have fought several wars and been involved in numerous skirmishes. These conflicts have largely arisen from territorial disputes, ideological differences, and deep-rooted historical grievances.
Despite attempts to improve relations through diplomacy and various peace initiatives, the hostility between the two nuclear-armed neighbors continues to endure. The issue of Kashmir, a region claimed by both countries, remains a major point of contention, with both sides unwilling to compromise on their respective claims.
In this article, we will delve into the history of Pakistan-India relations, examining the root causes of the conflict, the various attempts at reconciliation, and the current state of affairs between the two nations.
Table of Contents
Historical Background
Partition
In March 1947 Louis Mountbatten arrived in India as its last viceroy of the British Empire. He was tasked with overseeing the decolonization of the country, with the ideal goal of transferring power to an Indian government representing the entire subcontinent. He was also granted significant freedom to bring an end to British rule. On 2 June 1947, Admiral Lord Louis Mountbatten, announced that Britain had accepted that the country should be divided into a mainly Hindu India and a mainly Muslim Pakistan, encompassing the geographically separate territories of West Pakistan (now Pakistan) and East Pakistan (now Bangladesh).
Princely States of India, which were not under direct British rule, were given the option to choose which country to join. Those states whose princes failed to join either country or chose a country at odds with their majority religion, such as Kashmir and Hyderabad,
Sir Cyril Radcliffe, the British lawyer appointed to chair the boundary commissions for the division, it marked the borders of the newly created nations of India and Pakistan. Radcliffe had little knowledge of India and was given just five weeks to complete the complex task of drawing the borders. He had to consider religious majorities, administrative boundaries, and economic resources while drawing the lines.
At the time of partition, there were 562 princely states, and they were given three options:
- Pakistan
- India
- Remain independent
In these princely states there was a region in the north of subcontinent it was Jammu and Kashmir. It was the largest and most strategically important princely state. This region bacame a conflict that has endured for decades, with the region continuing to be a flashpoint for tensions between India and Pakistan.
On 14th and 15th august the subcontinent divided into two secular but predominantly Hindu India and Muslim-majority Pakistan. This division triggers one of the largest mass migrations in history and ignites widespread violence and riots across the region.It displaced up to 12.5 million people, with an estimated loss of life of 1 million.
1947-48 India-Pakistan war
The 562 princely states were given the option to join either India or Pakistan or remain independent. The princely state of Jammu and Kashmir, which had a Muslim-majority population but was ruled by a Hindu Maharaja (Maharaja Hari Singh), found itself at the center of a complex dilemma.
According to historians Maharaja deployed his troops in the area. They started organized genocide of the Muslims of Kashmir Half million Muslims were expelled from their homes.
As soon as the news of the brutal genocide spread armed groups from NWFP (now KPK) and the tribal launched an invasion on Kashmir in October 1947. The tribal invaders advanced quickly into Kashmir, capturing several towns and they capture the capital of Kashmir Srinagar.
The Mahraja flew to New Delhi and he signed on Kashmir’s accession to India on 27 October 1947. Mahraja requesting Indian Government to send Indian troops to Kashmir to fight against invaders. Indian troops flying to Srinagar on the same day. Now war between the Indian forces and tribal irregular forces of Pakistan. Pakistan entered their forces in may 1948. Now full scale war between India and Pakistan and started.
As the war escalates international concern grew over the stability of the region, especially given that both nations were newly independent and the conflict risked further destabilization. To defuse the situation, the United Nations Security Council (UNSC) intervened. In January 1948, India approached the UN, accusing Pakistan of aiding and abetting the tribal invaders and regular forces. Pakistan denied these claims, arguing that it was merely supporting an uprising of Kashmiri people. After intense diplomatic negotiations and pressure from the international community, both India and Pakistan agreed to a ceasefire. The ceasefire agreement was signed on December 31, 1948, and came into effect on January 1, 1949. The ceasefire line, which was established, later became known as the Line of Control (LoC).
India retained control of roughly two-thirds of the state, including the Kashmir Valley, Jammu, and Ladakh. Pakistan controlled about one-third, which it named Azad Jammu and Kashmir and the Northern Areas (now known as Gilgit-Baltistan).
The ceasefire created the Line of Control, which divided Kashmir between the two countries. While the ceasefire stopped active hostilities, it did not resolve the underlying dispute over Kashmir, setting the stage for future conflicts and continued tension between India and Pakistan.
1965 war
On 5th august 1965 Pakistan launched “On 5th august 1965 Pakistan launched “Operation Gibraltar,” sending thousands of armed infiltrators into the Indian-administered Kashmir region. About 5000 to 7000 Pakistani soldiers crossed the Line of Control dressed as Kashmiri locals headed for various areas within Kashmir. The aim was to incite an insurgency among the local Kashmiri Muslim population and weaken India’s control over the territory.,” sending thousands of armed infiltrators into the Indian-administered Kashmir region. About 5000 to 7000 Pakistani soldiers crossed the Line of Control dressed as Kashmiri locals headed for various areas within Kashmir. The aim was to incite an insurgency among the local Kashmiri Muslim population and weaken India’s control over the territory.
In the beginning the operation was successful capturing towns and cities. By mid-August, Indian forces launched a series of counter-offensives to clear the infiltrators from their positions. Heavy fighting ensued in several sectors, such as the Tithwal, Uri, and Poonch regions. The Indian Army captured several key positions along the ceasefire line, including the strategic Haji Pir Pass on August 28, 1965. The capture of Haji Pir, a critical mountain pass, allowed India to gain control over a crucial infiltration route used by Pakistani forces to enter Kashmir. India launched Operation Ablaze, a broader military mobilization along the ceasefire line, involving artillery shelling and targeted strikes against Pakistani positions. Indian forces pressed ahead to destroy the remaining infiltrator camps and bases inside Kashmir.
Operation Gibraltar was failed to achieve it’s goals most of the guerilla fighters were killed or some of them were arrested. On 1 September 1965, Pakistan launched a counterattack, called Operation Grand Slam, with the objective to capture the vital town of Akhnoor in Jammu, which would sever communications and cut off supply routes to Indian troops. India responded by deploying its air force to counter the Pakistani offensive. In retaliation, Pakistan launched its own air strikes the following day, targeting Indian positions and air bases in both Kashmir and Punjab.
In response to the Pakistani offensive, India decided to expand the conflict beyond Jammu and Kashmir. On September 6, 1965, the Indian Army crossed the international border and launched a major offensive in the Lahore and Sialkot sectors, escalating the war into a full-scale conflict between the two countries. The goal of the offensive was to capture the major city of Lahore.
When the Indian forces advanced towards Lahore and Sialkot, Pakistan was forced to divert its military focus from Operation Grand Slam in the Kashmir sector to counter the Indian advance on its western front. The Pakistani Army established defensive positions along the Ichhogil Canal and launched counterattacks to prevent Indian troops from crossing the canal. This led to intense fighting around the Burki sector and Dograi, where both sides suffered heavy casualties. The Pakistani Army launched a major counteroffensive at the Battle of Chawinda, where they deployed a large number of tanks and infantry to stop the Indian advance. The battle, fought between September 14 and 18, became one of the largest tank battles since World War II and resulted in a stalemate, with heavy losses on both sides.
The 1965 Indo-Pakistani War ended with a United Nations-brokered ceasefire on September 22, 1965. The war concluded with no clear victor, as neither India nor Pakistan achieved their strategic objectives. The UN Security Council unanimously passed Resolution 211, the resolution urged India and Pakistan to withdraw their forces to the positions held before August 5, 1965 (before the start of hostilities), and to restore normalcy along the ceasefire line in Jammu and Kashmir.
In the aftermath of the ceasefire, the Soviet Union, under Premier Alexei Kosygin, offered to mediate peace talks between India and Pakistan. The two countries accepted the offer, and the talks were held in Tashkent (now in Uzbekistan). The negotiations culminated in the signing of the Tashkent Agreement on January 10, 1966, by Indian Prime Minister Lal Bahadur Shastri and Pakistani President Ayub Khan.
The Tashkent Agreement brought about a temporary peace, but it did not lead to a lasting resolution of the Kashmir dispute, which continued to fuel tensions between the two nations.
1971 war
The 1947 partition of India led to the creation of West and East Pakistan, two geographically separated territories united by a shared Islamic faith but divided by significant differences in language, ethnicity, and cultural identity. In the 1970 parliamentary elections, the majority of East Pakistanis cast their votes for a political party that championed greater autonomy for the region. However, the party was prevented from forming a government by the Pakistani military and central authorities, and its leader was subsequently imprisoned. The resulting mass protests in the East were brutally suppressed by the Pakistani Army.
The Bangali nationalists form a resistance movement called Mukti Bahini that were engaged in armed conflict against the Pakistani military, conducting operations across the region and receiving support from India.On March 25, 1971, the Pakistani military launched “Operation Searchlight” in East Pakistan to suppress the Mukti Bahini movement
By mid July, India had settled on a plan of attack. The ground in the East would be drier by mid November, which would make a rapid offensive easier. By early to mid December, the Himalayan passes would be closed by snow, limiting China’s ability to intervene From 21 November, however, Indian forces with Mukti Bahini support entered East Pakistan and remained there in preparation for a formal war that India expected to launch on 6 December.
On December 3, 1971, Pakistan launched operation Operation Chengiz khan these were include pre-emptive strikes on eight Indian airfields. This air action marked the start of all-out war; Gandhi ordered the mobilisation of troops and launched a full-scale invasion of East Pakistan. This involved Indian forces in coordinated air, sea and land assaults. The main Indian objective on the eastern front was to capture Dacca, and on the western front to contain Pakistani forces. The Indian Army started ground operation and they moved rapidly towards Dhaka, the capital of East Pakistan, and laid siege to the city. The fall of key strategic locations, such as Jessore, Khulna, and Comilla, further weakened the Pakistani defenses.
On December 16, 1971, General A.A.K. Niazi signed the Instrument of Surrender in Dhaka, in the presence of Lt. General Jagjit Singh Aurora and senior Indian and Bangladeshi officers. Over 93,000 Pakistani military personnel, including soldiers and paramilitary troops, surrendered to the joint Indian and Mukti Bahini forces, making it one of the largest surrenders in modern military history. With the surrender of Pakistani forces, East Pakistan officially became the independent state of Bangladesh. The war resulted in the dismemberment of Pakistan and significantly altered the geopolitical landscape of South Asia.
India and Pakistan signed the Simla Agreement on July 2, 1972, in the Indian town of Shimla. The agreement laid the foundation for post-war relations and sought to establish durable peace between the two countries. India returned over 13,000 square kilometers of territory captured during the war and repatriated Pakistani prisoners of war. The agreement facilitated the repatriation of over 93,000 Pakistani prisoners of war (PoWs) held by India, including soldiers and civilians.
Nuclearization of South Asia
The nuclearization of South Asia is a pivotal event in India-Pakistan relations, with significant implications for regional security, deterrence stability, and global non-proliferation efforts.
India began its nuclear research in the 1940s, with a focus on peaceful nuclear energy. However, following the 1962 war with China and China’s subsequent nuclear test in 1964, India shifted towards developing its own nuclear capability for security reasons.
Pakistan’s interest in nuclear weapons intensified after its defeat in the 1971 war and India’s first nuclear test in 1974, known as “Smiling Buddha.” Under Prime Minister Zulfikar Ali Bhutto, Pakistan embarked on its nuclear weapons program, viewing it as essential for deterrence against India.
In May 1998, India conducted a series of five nuclear tests in the Thar Desert, codenamed “Operation Shakti.” The tests marked India’s emergence as a declared nuclear state, showcasing its nuclear capabilities and sending a strategic message to both Pakistan and China. In response to India’s tests, Pakistan conducted six nuclear tests on May 28, 1998, in the Chagai Hills of Balochistan. The tests were seen as a demonstration of Pakistan’s nuclear deterrence capabilities and were carried out to restore strategic balance in the region.
Both countries continue to modernize their nuclear arsenals and delivery systems. This includes the development of ballistic and cruise missiles with greater range and accuracy. The potential for miscalculation or escalation in future crises, such as the 2019 Pulwama-Balakot standoff, remains a concern, making crisis management mechanisms and confidence-building measures more critical than ever.
Lahore Declaration
After 50 years of the creation of the two nations. Both the countries became nuclear powers. A landmark movement came in India Pakistan relations. When the Indian PM Atal Bihari Vajpayee arrived in Lahore.
The visit took place on February 20-21, 1999. Prime Minister Vajpayee made a symbolic journey from New Delhi to Lahore via a bus service known as the “Sada-e-Sarhad” (Call of the Frontier), signifying the desire for peace and friendly relations between the two nations. He was warmly received by Prime Minister Nawaz Sharif and senior Pakistani officials upon his arrival in Lahore.
The two leaders signed a key document which was Lahore Declaration aimed at promoting peace and security in the region.
The Lahore Declaration was signed on 21 February along with a memorandum of understanding (MoU) after three rounds of talks between the Indian and Pakistani leaders. In the statement, both governments reaffirmed their dedication to the principles of peace, stability, and shared progress, emphasizing their unwavering commitment to the Simla Agreement and the UN Charter. Through the Lahore Declaration, both governments acknowledged that the development of nuclear weapons placed an additional responsibility on both nations to prevent conflict. They also underscored the importance of confidence-building measures, particularly to avoid accidental or unauthorized use of nuclear weapons.
The important inter alia stated in Lahore Declaration:-
- Recognizes that the nuclear dimension of the security environment of the two countries adds to their responsibility for avoidance of conflict between them.
- Commits both to the principles and purposes of the Charter of the United Nations, and the universally accepted principles of peaceful co-existence.
- Commits both countries to the objectives of universal nuclear disarmament and nonproliferation
The Lahore Declaration and MoU reflected a joint commitment to resolve the Kashmir issue, strengthen bilateral dialogue, and implement nuclear safeguards to prevent conflict. Both governments denounced terrorism, pledged non-interference in each other’s internal affairs, supported the goals of the South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation, and advocated for the promotion of human rights.
A two-member ministerial committee was to be established to investigate human rights issues, civilian detainees and missing prisoners of war. The Indian Prime Minister thanked his Pakistani counterpart and issued an invitation for a future summit in India.
1999 Kargil war
In February 1999 when the both the leaders of Pakistan and India were signifying desire for peace and friendly relations between the two nations. In the same month, they were unaware that a new front had opened between them.”
In February 1999 the Pakistani military chief General Parvez Musharraf and senior military genenals sent forces on the Indian side of LOC. Pakistani forces took place in the heights of the lower Mushkoh Valley, along the Marpo La ridgeline in Dras, in Kaksar near Kargil, in Jammu Kashmir. Their objective was to sever the link between Ladakh and Kashmir, cut off the vital National Highway 1 (NH-1), and put pressure on India to negotiate on Kashmir. In the beginning the PM and civil government of Pakistan were unaware of this military action.
The infiltration was not detected by India in the first month because of harsh winter months, when the Indian Army traditionally vacated some of its forward posts due to extreme weather and heavy snowfall. In the beginning of May the local shepherd (Indian Raw agent) in the Batalik sector, led to the exposure of the infiltration. Initially Indian military underestimated the scale of infiltration, believing it to be a localized intrusion by militants. However, upon realizing the strategic depth and planning involved, the Indian Army launched a full-scale operation to evict the intruders.
The Government of India responded with Operation Vijay, The operation involved mobilizing more than 200,000 Indian troops to the Kargil region. Given the high-altitude terrain and harsh weather conditions, the operation posed severe logistical and operational challenges
At this point now Kargil became an international news. The Indian Air Force (IAF) launched “Operation Safed Sagar” to provide aerial support for ground troops. The IAF used fighter jets and helicopters to target enemy supply lines and positions. Pakistan shoot down several Indian fighter jets and helicopters. India also launch navy and start a full scale war.
Pakistan at this point didn’t use it’s air force and navy because of the risk of full scale war specially threat of nuclear war. International community specially US pressured Pakistan to with drawl it’s forces. US President Bill Clinton personally intervened, urging Pakistani Prime Minister Nawaz Sharif to pull back his troops and avoid further escalation. Under the intense of International pressure Pakistan announced its decision to withdraw from the occupied positions in early July 1999.
By July 26, 1999, Indian forces had successfully recaptured most of the peaks, and the conflict officially ended with India declaring “Operation Vijay” a success. The war further strained India-Pakistan relations and undermined the trust built through the Lahore Declaration. It led to a prolonged stalemate in diplomatic engagements.
Recent developments in India- Pakistan relations
The 1999 Kargil war was the last conflict in which both the countries were directly involved. After this the new era of proxies war start several political events between the two countries happened.
Cross-boarder terrorism
In December 2001, the Indian Parliament was attacked by terrorists, resulting in nine deaths. India blamed Pakistan-based militant groups Jaish-e-Mohammed (JeM) and Lashkar-e-Taiba (LeT), leading to a major military standoff between the two countries. In 2003, both the countries agreed to a ceasefire along the Line of Control (LoC), significantly reducing violence and cross-border infiltration. In 2008 terrorists carried out attacks in Mumbai and killed 166 peoples including 6 Americans. India accused the Pakistani based Let for the attacks.
in September 2016, when armed militants attacked a remote Indian Army base in Uri, near the LOC, killing eighteen Indian soldiers in the deadliest attack on the Indian armed forces in decades. This period was marked by an uptick in border skirmishes that began in late 2016 and continued into 2018, killing dozens and displacing thousands of civilians on both sides of the Line of Control. In 2017, more than three thousand cross-border strikes were reported, while nearly one thousand were reported in the first half of 2018. Militants launched attacks in October 2017 against an Indian paramilitary camp near Srinagar and, in February 2018, against an Indian army base in the Jammu region, which killed five soldiers and a civilian.
In February 2019 an attack on Indian paramilitary forces in Pulwama, Indian-administered Kashmir, killed at least forty soldiers. India retaliated by conducting an air strike that targeted terrorist training camps within Pakistani territory; these were answered by Pakistani air strikes on Indian-administered Kashmir. The exchange escalated into an aerial engagement, during which Pakistan shot down two Indian military aircraft and captured an Indian pilot; the pilot was released two days later.
On the other hand Pakistan claims that India has been supporting Baloch separatist groups, such as the Baloch Liberation Army (BLA) and Baloch Republican Army (BRA), which have carried out attacks against Pakistani security forces and infrastructure projects. Pakistani officials argue that India provides financial, logistical, and training support to these groups to destabilize Balochistan and hinder projects like the China-Pakistan Economic Corridor (CPEC), which passes through the province. Pakistan has accused India of using Afghan soil to sponsor terrorism in its western regions, including Khyber Pakhtunkhwa and the former Federally Administered Tribal Areas (FATA). They allege that India, through its consulates in Afghanistan, funds and supports groups like the Tehrik-i-Taliban Pakistan (TTP) and Jamaat-ul-Ahrar (JuA), which have carried out numerous attacks against civilians and military personnel in Pakistan.
In 2020, Pakistan presented a dossier to the United Nations and other international bodies, alleging that India was sponsoring terrorism within its borders. The dossier included details on funding, training, and the locations of camps allegedly run by Indian intelligence agencies to support anti-Pakistan activities.
In recent years, there has been increased attention on these allegations as both countries have lobbied international bodies and countries to support their respective positions. The FATF, in particular, has been a significant forum where Pakistan’s anti-terrorism efforts and India’s counter-accusations have been discussed. The international community has generally called for both countries to resolve their differences through dialogue and to refrain from activities that could destabilize the region further
Elections of 2024
Elections were held in Pakistan on 8 February 2024 to elect the members of the 16th National Assembly. Election was significantly shaped by various domestic crises, including economic instability and rising terrorism, alongside persistent security concerns related to India. But no any party or politician use the anti-India sentiments in their election campaign.
But in India the situation was different. General elections were held in India from 19 April to 1 June 2024 in seven phases, to elect all 543 members of the Lok Sabha. Votes were counted and the result was declared on 4 June to form the 18th Lok Sabha. On 7 June 2024, Prime Minister Narendra Modi confirmed the support of 293 MPs to Droupadi Murmu, the president of India. This marked Modi’s third term as prime minister and his first time heading a coalition government, with the Telugu Desam Party of Andhra Pradesh and Janata Dal (United) of Bihar emerging as two main allies.
Most of the BJP’s election campaign focused on Pakistan rhetoric. Several times they use the Pakistan factor for their election campaign. Political parties have exchanged sharp barbs on Pakistan despite the fact that foreign policy issues have not figured prominently in the campaign so far. Despite these anti Pakistan rhetoric after wining the election PM Modi send positive comments on Pakistan invites Pakistan for peace and stability. Pakistani PM Shahbaz Sharif also congratulates PM Modi for its third term wining the office of Prime minister.
The new generation of 21st century
The generation of 21 st century is different from the generation of 1960’s and 1970’s. The younger generation in both India and Pakistan has grown up in a digitally connected world, where they have broader exposure to global issues, modern ideas, and multicultural viewpoints.
The young youth now have direct access to diverse viewpoints through digital platforms. This transformation has allowed them to engage in conversations that were once unimaginable due to geographical and political barriers. Many youth-led initiatives and pages actively promote dialogue, cultural exchange, and even humor as a means to reduce tensions and build mutual understanding.
Social media has become a double-edged sword, providing a platform for both engagement and conflict. But for the younger generation, it represents an unprecedented opportunity to break down barriers, build connections, and envision a future where the relationship between India and Pakistan is defined less by conflict and more by collaboration and shared aspirations.
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